Today's Learning - Writing Skills

      In Malaysia, students usually made their choice of universities depending on Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia(SPM) result. In other side, they also choose by their interest to what their need to learn about. They must choose the best universities by looking several aspects. By supporting from family members, students suppose to be smart while choose the universities that they want to apply. The factor including is aspect, courses offered, and facilities.

     Talk about the aspects,they whose the student should look for the location of the  universities and the environment either safe or not.First,they must be away from the disturbances of social life example disco where as most of the people spend their time during night.Other than that, safety environment are most important.The location of the universities should be preferred able such as aoid from industrial areas like factory because all of  this can cause student expose to air pollution and other problems.

     Furthermore, student should consider courses that offered from universities.First,student should considered about their interest to ward their need to learn about.Do not simply accept the courses that they did not interest.This is because they cannot learn properly.In the other side,a student suppose looking the opportunity for the job based on their courses to avoid they become the jobless after graduated.However, the student need consider the fees for the each courses that did not expensive and depending on student's afford.

     In addition to, student should looking for the facilities such as accommodations is provide like hostel nearby to the universities and available to obtain the food.Besides that,universities management should provide transportation to easy for student go to the class.


      As a conclusion, students should think all the aspects before make a decision to apply any courses.Every universities or any institutions have their own advantages and disadvantages.So, we need to choose the courses that make we have a good future life and interested to learn about it.

-Thank You-

how to stop smoking....???????!!

1. Make an honest list of all the things you like about smoking. Draw a line down the center of a piece of paper and write them on one side; on the other side make a list of all the things you dislike, such as how it can interfere with your health, work, family, etc., suggests Daniel Z. Lieberman, M.D., director of the Clinical Psychiatric Research Center at George Washington University Medical Center in Washington, D.C. Think about the list over time, and make changes. If you are brave enough, get feedback from family and friends about things they don't like about your use of cigarettes. When the negative side outweighs the positive side, you are ready to quit.

2. Then make another list of why quitting won't be easy. Be thorough, even if the list gets long and discouraging. Here's the important part: Next to each entry, list one or more options for overcoming that challenge. For instance, one item might be: "Nicotine is an addictive drug." Your option might be: "Try a nicotine replacement alternative." Another reason might be: "Smoking helps me deal with stress." Your option might be: "Take five-minute walks instead." The more you anticipate the challenges to quitting, and their solutions, the better your chance of success.

3. Set a quit date and write a "quit date contract" that includes your signature and that of a supportive witness.

4. Write all your reasons for quitting on an index card and keep it near you at all times. Here are some to get you started: "My daughter, my granddaughter, my husband, my wife..." You get the idea.

5. As you're getting ready to quit, stop buying cartons of cigarettes. Instead, only buy a pack at a time, and only carry two or three with you at a time (try putting them in an Altoids tin). Eventually you'll find that when you want a smoke, you won't have any immediately available. That will slowly wean you down to fewer cigarettes.

6. Keep a list of when you smoke, what you're doing at the time, and how bad the craving is for a week before quitting to see if specific times of the day or activities increase your cravings, suggests Gaylene Mooney, chair of the American Association for Respiratory Care's Subcommittee on Smoking and Tobacco-Related Issues. Then arrange fun, unique things to do during those times, like some of the ones we recommend here.

7. Prepare a list of things to do when a craving hits. Suggestions include: take a walk, drink a glass of water, kiss your partner or child, throw the ball for the dog, wash the car, clean out a cupboard or closet, have sex, chew a piece of gum, wash your face, brush your teeth, take a nap, get a cup of coffee or tea, practice your deep breathing, light a candle. Make copies of the list and keep one with you at all times so when the craving hits, you can whip out the list and quickly do something from it. 

8. When your quit date arrives, throw out anything that reminds you of smoking. That includes all smoking paraphernalia -- leftover cigarettes, matches, lighters, ashtrays, cigarette holders, even the lighter in your car.

9. Instead of a cigarette break at work, play a game of solitaire on your computer. It takes about the same time and is much more fun (although, like cigarettes, it can get addictive). If your company prohibits games like that, find another five-minute diversion: a phone call, a stroll, or eating a piece of fruit outdoors (but not where smokers congregate).

10. Switch to a cup of herbal tea whenever you usually have a cigarette. That might be at breakfast, midmorning, or after meals. The act of brewing the tea and slowly sipping it as it cools will provide the same stress relief as a hit of nicotine.

11. Switch your cigarette habit for a nut habit -- four nuts in their shell for every cigarette you want to smoke. This way, you're using your hands and your mouth, getting the same physical and oral sensations you get from smoking.

12. Carry some cinnamon-flavored toothpicks with you. Suck on one whenever a cig craving hits.

13. Make an appointment with an acupuncturist. There's some evidence that auricular acupuncture (i.e., needles in the ears) curbs cigarette cravings quite successfully, says Ather Ali, N.D., a naturopathic physician completing a National Institutes of Health-sponsored postdoctoral research fellowship at the Yale-Griffin Prevention Research Center in Derby, Connecticut. You can even do it yourself by taping "seeds" (small beads) onto the acupuncture points and squeezing them whenever cravings arise.

14. Swing by the health food store for some Avena sativa (oat) extract. One study found that, taken at 1 milliliters four times daily, it helped habitual tobacco smokers significantly decrease the number of cigarettes they smoked.

15. Think of difficult things you have done in the past. Ask people who know you well to remind you of challenges you have successfully overcome, says Dr. Lieberman. This will give you the necessary self-confidence to stick with your pledge not to smoke.

16. To minimize cravings, change your routine. Sit in a different chair at breakfast or take a different route to work. If you usually have a drink and cigarette after work, change that to a walk. If you're used to a smoke with your morning coffee, switch to tea, or stop at Starbucks for a cup of java -- the chain is smoke-free.

17. Tell your friends, coworkers, boss, partner, kids, etc. , how you feel about situations instead of bottling up your emotions. If something makes you angry, express it instead of smothering it with cigarette smoke. If you're bored, admit to yourself that you're bored and find something energetic to do instead of lighting up. 

18. If you relapse, just start again. You haven't failed. Some people have to quit as many as eight times before they are successful.

19. Put all the money you're saving on cigarettes in a large glass jar. You want to physically see how much you've been spending. Earmark that money for something you've always dreamed of doing, but never thought you could afford, be it a cruise to Alaska or a first-class ticket to visit an old college friend.

20. Switch to decaf until you've been cigarette-free for two months. Too much caffeine while quitting can cause the jitters.

21. Create a smoke-free zone. Don't allow anyone to use tobacco in your home, car, or even while sitting next to you in a restaurant. Make actual "No Smoking" signs and hang them around your house and in your car.

22. Find a healthy snack food you can keep with you and use in place of cigarettes to quench that urge for oral gratification. For instance, try pistachio nuts, sunflower seeds, sugarless lollipops or gum, carrot or celery sticks. The last ones are best if you are concerned about weight gain.

23. Picture yourself playing tennis. Or go play tennis. British researchers found volunteers trying to quit smoking were better able to ignore their urges to smoke when they were told to visualize a tennis match.

24. Quit when you're in a good mood. Studies find that you're less likely to be a successful quitter if you quit when you're depressed or under a great deal of stress.

25. Post this list in a visible location in your house. Whenever you're tempted to light up, take a look at all the ways smoking can damage your health:

• Increases risk of lung, bladder, pancreatic, mouth, esophageal, and other cancers, including leukemia
• Reduces fertility
• Contributes to thin bones
• Affects mental capacity and memory
• Reduces levels of folate, low levels of which can increase the risk of heart disease, depression, and Alzheimer's disease
• Increases likelihood of impotence
• Affects ability to smell and taste
• Results in low-birth-weight, premature babies
• Increases risk of depression in adolescents
• Increases risk of heart disease, stroke, high blood pressure
• Increases risk of diabetes
• Increases your child's risk of obesity and diabetes later in life if you smoked while pregnant

what is epilepsy........??????

Definition of Epilepsy (Seizure Disorders)

A seizure is an event characterized by abnormal electrical activity in the brain, usually resulting in abnormal movements, abnormal sensations, and/or changes in consciousness. An individual is usually diagnosed as having epilepsy (seizure disorder) when he or she has had multiple spontaneous seizures, that is, ones that are not associated with an obvious trigger such as fever, electrolyte imbalance, or head trauma.

Description of Epilepsy (Seizure Disorders)

There are many forms of epilepsy, each with its own characteristic symptoms. Whatever the form, the disease is caused by a problem in communication among the brain's nerve cells. Normally, such cells communicate with one another by sending tiny electrical signals back and forth. For someone with epilepsy, the electrical signals are at high risk of occurring with an abnormal rhythm, either in one particular region of the brain, multiple regions, or throughout the brain. A seizure that begins in one part of the brain may spread to other parts, depending on the severity of the epilepsy. The underlying cause may be structural, including a brain injury such as a contusion, infection such as encephalitis, lack of oxygen to one part of the brain as occurs in a stroke, or a tumor. In some cases, there may be a brain malformation that developed before birth. In other cases, the cause may be a more generalized dysfunction of the brain that is not primarily structural, such as a genetic or metabolic disorder. In a large number of patients, the ultimate cause is not found at all, despite extensive testing.
Seizures are divided into two basic categories, generalized and partial. In generalized seizures, the abnormal electrical discharges occur throughout the brain, whereas partial seizures only affect a specific region of the brain. Within each of these major categories are two common seizure types. There are generalized tonic-clonic (“grand mal”) seizures, and absence (“petit mal”) seizures. There are complex partial seizures and simple partial seizures. Other types exist, but these are the major ones.
A generalized tonic-clonic (“grand mal”) seizure is the most dramatic. It begins with a tonic phase in which the individual falls to the ground unconscious, with stiffening of the entire body. This is followed by the clonic phase, in which the arms and legs jerk rhythmically and uncontrollably. This may last for several minutes and may be accompanied by tongue-biting and incontinence of bladder or bower function. The seizure is usually followed by a period of deep sleep or mental confusion, called a post-ictal period.
Absence (“petit mal”) epilepsy is typically a disease of childhood that does not usually persist past late adolescence. During such a seizure, the child suddenly stops in the middle of an activity and stares blankly around for a few seconds (sometimes up to half a minute), and is unaware of what is happening. There may be a slight jerking movement of the head or an arm, or sometimes lip smacking, but petit mal seizures do not generally involve falling to the ground and thus may be very subtle. Usually, there is no tongue-biting or incontinence. When the seizure ends, the child often does not realize that the brief blank spell has occurred and resumes the interrupted activity without a post-ictal phase (period of sleeping or drowsiness). A child may have dozens of these spells a day. Such children are often thought by teachers and parents to be "day-dreamers," and may be misdiagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder because of the difficulty concentrating.
A complex partial seizure causes a change of consciousness that may range from confusion to complete unresponsiveness. Some complex partial seizures, including temporal lobe seizures, may be preceded by an aura, which can occur just prior to the seizure or as much as several hours beforehand. The aura may consist of nothing but a sense of tension or some other ill-defined feeling, but some epileptics have quite specific auras such as an impression of smelling unpleasant odors or hearing peculiar sounds, distorted vision, or an odd bodily sensation, particularly in the stomach. Many epileptics learn to recognize their special aura, and this may give them time to prepare as much as possible for the seizure by sitting or lying down, or stopping a potentially dangerous activity. Because only part of the brain is affected, the seizure may be much more subtle than a generalized tonic-clonic seizure. There may be twitching of one part of the body on only one side, an unusual sensation in one location, lip smacking, chewing movements, blinking, or a combination of these, accompanied by a change in consciousness. Some complex partial seizures remain localized in the affected part of the brain, and the seizure may be so subtle that it may be confused with absence (“petit mal”) seizures. In other individuals, the seizure may start with focal symptoms but then spread throughout the brain, resulting in a generalized tonic-clonic seizure. This is an example of a mixed type of seizure. Complex partial seizures are typically followed by a post-ictal phase (period of sleeping of drowsiness).
Simple partial seizures are similar to complex partial seizures but are not accompanied by changes in consciousness. The individual will be able to talk and describe what he/she feels during the seizure. This is the only major type of seizure that the individual usually remembers, but is relatively rare outside of certain childhood seizure syndromes such as Rolandic epilepsy.
The basic symptom of epilepsy is a brief and abnormal phase of behavior, commonly known as a seizure, fit or convulsion. It is important to realize that a single such episode does not indicate that you have epilepsy. By definition, epileptic seizures recur. 

Treatment of Epilepsy (Seizure Disorders)

First aid for epilepsy is designed to protect the safety of the person until the seizure stops naturally by itself. These are the key things to remember:

• Keep calm and reassure other people who may be nearby.Unless the individual and his/her disorder are well-known to you, you should have someone call 911 and ask for an ambulance immediately. Especially if this is a first time seizure, the person should be taken to the nearest hospital emergency department for an evaluation. A first-time seizure may sometimes be the first symptom of a stroke, cerebral hemorrhage, or meningitis/encephalitis, all of which are life-threatening conditions. Also, a seizure may sometimes not stop by itself, and the prompt arrival of an ambulance crew may be lifesaving.
  
• Clear the area around the person of anything hard or sharp.
If the person is not lying on a flat surface, transfer him/her gently to one, preferably a carpeted floor.
• Loosen ties or anything round the neck that may make breathing difficult.
• Turn the person gently onto his/her side. This will help keep the airway clear.
• Do not try to force the mouth open with any hard implement or with fingers. It is not true that a person having a seizure can swallow his/her tongue, and efforts to hold the tongue down can injure his/her teeth or jaw. A person in the middle of a seizure may bite down with enough force to bite off fingers.
• Don't hold the person down or try to stop his movements.
• Don't attempt artificial respiration, except in the unlikely event that a person does not start breathing again after the seizure has stopped.
• Stay with the person until the seizure ends naturally.
• If the individual awakens before the ambulance arrives, be friendly and reassuring and explain what happened.

These guidelines are not a substitute for formal life support training. Defer to another person on the scene who has had basic life support training if you are not certified, and be as helpful as possible. If you expect to be in proximity to someone, either at home or at work, with epilepsy, you may wish to consider enrolling in a basic life support course.

Prevention of Epilepsy (Seizure Disorders)

In the past, there were few medications available to treat epilepsy and an affected individual was condemned to recurrent, harmful, and socially embarrassing events. Severe cases of epilepsy are still difficult to control, but recent advances in both medical and surgical therapies are helping many more people than before. In some cases, treatments are so successful that people go for years with complete seizure control. Epileptic seizures can often be prevented by one or more of the following measures:

• regular use of anti-seizure medication
• removal of brain tissue where seizures take place
• special diet to produce a change in body chemistry (known as the ketogenic diet, for severe cases of epilepsy only)
• avoidance of special conditions known to trigger seizures in susceptible people (useful if a trigger such as sleep-deprivation can be identified)

Of the methods listed above, drug therapy is by far the most often used and is almost always the method tried first. Sixteen medications to prevent epileptic seizures are currently approved for use in the U.S., and of these, the following six are used most frequently: Phenytoin (Dilantin), phenobarbital, ethosuximide (Zarontin), primidone (Mysoline), valproic acid (Depakene, Depakote) and carbamazepine (Tegretol, Carbatrol). Newer medications that have become increasingly accepted include lamotrigine (Lamictal), topiramate (Topamax), zonisamide (Zonegran), and levitiracetam (Keppra). Many of these medications have potentially severe or even life-threatening side effects, and should be discussed in detail with a physician before starting a course of therapy.
When taken regularly as prescribed, medication can prevent seizures in about half of all cases and produce improvement in about 30 percent of all cases. The remaining patients do not get much relief from existing medications.
When drugs fail to prevent seizures, surgery may be an option, but surgery is only possible when the seizures begin in one fairly small part of the brain that can be removed without affecting speech, memory or some other important brain function. Although surgery is not used as often as drug therapy, the results are similar – about 70 percent of all patients getting either full or greatly improved control of seizures, and the rest have only a slight improvement or none at all.

 

SNORING

What is snoring?

Snoring, like all other sounds, is caused by vibrations that cause particles in the air to form sound waves. For example, when we speak, our vocal cords vibrate to form our voice. When our stomach growls (borborygmus), our stomach and intestines vibrate as air and food move through them.
While we are asleep, turbulent airflow can cause the tissues of the nose and throat to vibrate and give rise to snoring. Essentially, snoring is a sound resulting from turbulent airflow that causes tissues to vibrate during sleep.

How common is snoring?

Any person can snore. Studies estimate that 45% of men and 30% of women snore on a regular basis. Frequently, people who do not regularly snore will report snoring after a viral illness, after drinking alcohol, or when taking some medications.
People who snore can have any body type. We frequently think of a large man with a thick neck as a snorer. However, a thin woman with a small neck can snore just as loudly. In general, as people get older and as they gain weight, snoring will worsen.

What causes snoring?

While we are breathing, air flows in and out in a steady stream from our nose or mouth to our lungs. There are relatively few sounds when we are sitting and breathing quietly. When we exercise, the air moves more quickly and produces some sounds as we breathe. This happens because air is moving in and out of the nose and mouth more quickly and this results in more turbulence to the airflow and some vibration of the tissues in the nose and mouth.
When we are asleep, the area at the back of the throat sometimes narrows. The same amount of air passing through this smaller opening can cause the tissues surrounding the opening to vibrate, which in turn can cause the sounds of snoring. Different people who snore have different reasons for the narrowing. The narrowing can be in the nose, mouth, or throat.


The function of the nose in normal breathing

For breathing at rest, it is ideal to breathe through the nose. The nose acts as a humidifier, heater, and filter for the incoming air. When we breathe through our mouth, these modifications to the air entering our lungs occur to a lesser extent. Our lungs are still able to use the colder, drier, dirtier air; but you may have noticed that breathing really cold, dry, or dirty air can be uncomfortable. Therefore, our bodies naturally want to breathe through the nose if possible.
The nose is made up of two parallel passages, one on each side, called the nasal cavity. They are separated by a thin wall in the middle (the septum), which is a relatively flat wall of cartilage, bone, and lining tissue (called the nasal mucosa). On the lateral side (the wall of the nose closer to the cheeks) of each passage, there are three nasal turbinates, which are long, cylindrical-shaped structures that lie roughly parallel to the floor of the nose. The turbinates contain many small blood vessels that function to regulate airflow. If the blood vessels in the turbinates increase in size, the turbinate as a whole swells, and the flow of air decreases. If the vessels narrow, the turbinates become smaller and airflow increases.
Everyone has a natural nasal cycle that generally will shift the side that is doing most of the breathing about every eight hours. For example, if the right nasal turbinates are swollen, most of the air enters the left nasal passage. After about eight hours, the right nasal turbinates will become smaller, and the left nasal turbinates will swell, shifting the majority of breathing to the right nasal passage. You may notice this cycle when you have a cold or if you have a chronically (long standing) stuffy nose. The turbinates may also swell from allergic reactions or external stimuli, such as cold air or dirt.

Mouth breathing and snoring

As discussed above, we naturally want to breathe through our noses. Some people cannot breathe through their noses because of obstruction of the nasal passages. This can be caused by a deviation of the nasal septum, allergies, sinus infections, swelling of the turbinates, or large adenoids (tonsils in the back of the throat).
In adults, the most common causes of nasal obstruction are septal deviations from a broken nose or tissue swelling from allergies.
In children, enlarged adenoids (tonsils in the back of the throat) are often the cause of the obstruction.
People with nasal airway obstruction who must breathe through their mouths are therefore sometimes called "mouth breathers." Many mouth breathers snore, because the flow of air through the mouth causes greater vibration of tissues.

The soft palate and snoring

The soft palate is a muscular extension of the bony roof of the mouth (hard palate). It separates the back of the mouth (oropharynx) from the nasal passages (nasopharynx). It is shaped like a sheet attached at three sides and hanging freely in the back of the mouth.
The soft palate is important when breathing and swallowing.

• During nasal breathing, the palate moves forward and "opens" the nasal airway for air to pass into the lungs.
  
• During swallowing, the palate moves backward and "closes" the nasal passages, thereby directing the food and liquid down the esophagus instead of into the back of the nose.

The uvula is the small extension at the back of the soft the palate. It assists with the function of the soft palate and also is used in some languages (Hebrew and Farsi) to produce the guttural fricative sounds (like in the Hebrew word "L'chaim"). English words do not use the guttural fricative sounds.
The palate and attached uvula often are the structures that vibrate during snoring and surgical treatments for snoring may alter these structures and prevent guttural fricative sounds. Therefore, if you speak a language that uses guttural fricative sounds, a surgical treatment for snoring may not be recommended or appropriate for you.

Narrowed airways and snoring

The tonsils are designed to detect and fight infections. They are located at the back of the mouth on each side of the throat (oropharynx). They are also called the palatine tonsils. Like other infection-fighting tissue, the tonsils swell while they are fighting bacteria and viruses. Often, the tonsils do not return to their normal size after the infection is gone. They can remain enlarged (hypertrophied) and can narrow the airway vibrate, and cause snoring.
The soft palate, as described above, is the flap of tissue that hangs down in the back of the mouth. If it is too long or floppy, it can vibrate and cause snoring.
The uvula is suspended from the center and back of the soft palate. An abnormally long or thick uvula also can contribute to snoring.
The base of the tongue is the part of the tongue that is the farthest back in the mouth. The tongue is a large muscle that is important for directing food while chewing and swallowing. It also is important for shaping words while we are speaking. It is attached to the inner part of the jaw bone (mandible) in the front and to the hyoid bone underneath.
The tongue must be free to move in all directions to function properly. Therefore, it is not attached very tightly at the tip or top of the tongue. If the back of the tongue is large or if the tongue is able to slip backwards, it can narrow the space through which air flows in the pharynx, which can lead to vibrations and snoring.

Stage of sleep and snoring

Sleep consists of several stages, but in general they can be divided into REM (rapid eye movement) and non-REM stages. Snoring can occur during all or only some stages of sleep. Snoring is most common in REM sleep, because of the loss of muscle tone characteristic of this stage of sleep.
During REM sleep, the brain sends the signal to all the muscles of the body (except the breathing muscles) to relax. Unfortunately, the tongue, palate, and throat can collapse when they relax. This can cause the airway to narrow and worsen snoring.


Sleeping position and snoring

When we are asleep, we are usually (though not always) lying down. Gravity acts to pull on all the tissues of the body, but the tissues of the pharynx are relatively soft and floppy. Therefore, when we lie on our backs, gravity pulls the palate, tonsils, and tongue backwards. This often narrows the airway enough to cause turbulence in airflow, tissue vibration, and snoring. Frequently, if the snorer is gently reminded (for example, with a gentle thrust of the elbow to the ribs or a tickle) to roll onto his or her side, the tissues are no longer pulled backwards and the snoring lessens.

BREAST CANCER

	Breast cancer is an uncontrolled growth of breast cells. To better understand breast cancer, it helps to understand how any cancer can develop. Cancer occurs as a result of mutations, or abnormal changes, in the genes responsible for regulating the growth of cells and keeping them healthy. The genes are in each cell’s nucleus, which acts as the “control room” of each cell. Normally, the cells in our bodies replace themselves through an orderly process of cell growth: healthy new cells take over as old ones die out. But over time, mutations can “turn on” certain genes and “turn off” others in a cell. That changed cell gains the ability to keep dividing without control or order, producing more cells just like it and forming a tumor. A tumor can be benign (not dangerous to health) or malignant (has the potential to be dangerous). Benign tumors are not considered cancerous: their cells are close to normal in appearance, they grow slowly, and they do not invade nearby tissues or spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors are cancerous. Left unchecked, malignant cells eventually can spread beyond the original tumor to other parts of the body. The term “breast cancer” refers to a malignant tumor that has developed from cells in the breast. Usually breast cancer either begins in the cells of the lobules, which are the milk-producing glands, or the ducts, the passages that drain milk from the lobules to the nipple. Less commonly, breast cancer can begin in the stromal tissues, which include the fatty and fibrous connective tissues of the breast. Breast Anatomy Larger Version Over time, cancer cells can invade nearby healthy breast tissue and make their way into the underarm lymph nodes, small organs that filter out foreign substances in the body. If cancer cells get into the lymph nodes, they then have a pathway into other parts of the body. The breast cancer’s stage refers to how far the cancer cells have spread beyond the original tumor (see Stages of Breast Cancer table for more information). Breast cancer is always caused by a genetic abnormality (a “mistake” in the genetic material). However, only 5-10% of cancers are due to an abnormality inherited from your mother or father. About 90% of breast cancers are due to genetic abnormalities that happen as a result of the aging process and the “wear and tear” of life in general. While there are steps every person can take to help the body stay as healthy as possible (such as eating a balanced diet, not smoking, limiting alcohol, and exercising regularly), breast cancer is never anyone's fault. Feeling guilty, or telling yourself that breast cancer happened because of something you or anyone else did, is not productive. Stages of Breast Cancer Stage Definition Stage 0 Cancer cells remain inside the breast duct, without invasion into normal adjacent breast tissue. Stage I Cancer is 2 centimeters or less and is confined to the breast (lymph nodes are clear). Stage IIA No tumor can be found in the breast, but cancer cells are found in the axillary lymph nodes (the lymph nodes under the arm) OR the tumor measures 2 centimeters or smaller and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes OR the tumor is larger than 2 but no larger than 5 centimeters and has not spread to the axillary lymph nodes. Stage IIB The tumor is larger than 2 but no larger than 5 centimeters and has spread to the axillary lymph nodes OR the tumor is larger than 5 centimeters but has not spread to the axillary lymph nodes. Stage IIIA No tumor is found in the breast. Cancer is found in axillary lymph nodes that are sticking together or to other structures, or cancer may be found in lymph nodes near the breastbone OR the tumor is any size. Cancer has spread to the axillary lymph nodes, which are sticking together or to other structures, or cancer may be found in lymph nodes near the breastbone. Stage IIIB The tumor may be any size and has spread to the chest wall and/or skin of the breast AND may have spread to axillary lymph nodes that are clumped together or sticking to other structures, or cancer may have spread to lymph nodes near the breastbone. Inflammatory breast cancer is considered at least stage IIIB. Stage IIIC There may either be no sign of cancer in the breast or a tumor may be any size and may have spread to the chest wall and/or the skin of the breast AND the cancer has spread to lymph nodes either above or below the collarbone AND the cancer may have spread to axillary lymph nodes or to lymph nodes near the breastbone. Stage IV The cancer has spread — or metastasized — to other parts of the body.
	SYMPTOMS OF BREAST CANCER
	Initially, breast cancer may not cause any symptoms. A lump may be too small for you to feel or to cause any unusual changes you can notice on your own. Often, an abnormal area turns up on a screening mammogram (x-ray of the breast), which leads to further testing. In some cases, however, the first sign of breast cancer is a new lump or mass in the breast that you or your doctor can feel. A lump that is painless, hard, and has uneven edges is more likely to be cancer. But sometimes cancers can be tender, soft, and rounded. So it's important to have anything unusual checked by your doctor. According to the American Cancer Society, any of the following unusual changes in the breast can be a symptom of breast cancer: swelling of all or part of the breast skin irritation or dimpling breast pain nipple pain or the nipple turning inward redness, scaliness, or thickening of the nipple or breast skin a nipple discharge other than breast milk a lump in the underarm area These changes also can be signs of less serious conditions that are not cancerous, such as an infection or a cyst. It’s important to get any breast changes checked out promptly by a doctor.

~ Insomnia ~

WHAT IS INSOMNIA.?

Insomnia is a sleep disorder in which a person experiences poor sleep or has trouble sleeping. Insomnia can involve:

• Difficulty falling asleep
• Difficulty staying asleep (that is, waking up many times during the night), without necessarily having had any difficulty falling asleep
• Waking up too early in the morning
• Not feeling refreshed after a night's sleep

In any of these cases the person feels tired the next day, or feels as if he or she did not have

 enough sleep.

 Poor sleep for any length of time can lead to mood disturbances, lack of motivation, 
decreased attention span, trouble with concentration, low levels of energy, and increased fatigue.


About one-third of the average person's life is spent sleeping. Healthy sleep is vital to the human body and important for the optimal functioning of the brain and other organs.
There are three types of insomnia:

1. Transient, or mild, insomnia - sleep difficulties that last for a few days; there is little or no evidence of impairment of functioning during the day
2. Short-term, or moderate, insomnia - sleep difficulties that last for less than a month, that mildly affect functioning during the day, together with feelings of irritability and fatigue
3. Chronic, or severe, insomnia - sleep difficulties that last for more than a month, that severely impair functioning during the day, and cause strong feelings of restlessness, irritability, anxiety, and fatigue.

SLEEP DISORDER

 Common sleep disorders include:

• Insomnia, an inability to sleep or to remain asleep throughout the night
• Obstructive sleep apnea, in which a person's breathing passages become temporarily blocked during the night; this condition is often marked by excessive snoring
• Chronic sleep apnea, a neurological condition in which the brain "forgets" to instruct the body to breathe
• Restless leg syndrome, in which a person has occasional movement and/or uncomfortable sensations in his or her legs, feet, or toes just before they fall asleep
• Hypersomnia, an increase in sleep by about one-fourth of a person's regular sleep patterns
• Narcolepsy, in which a person gets sudden attacks throughout the day and night of drowsiness and sleep that cannot be controlled
• Parasomnias, which are vivid dreams and physical activities that occur during sleep, such as sleepwalking (somnambulism) and episodes of screaming and flailing about (night terrors).

HOW IS INSOMNIA TREATED.?

Physical Relaxation

If you are anxious about falling asleep, certain muscles in your body become tense and sometimes painful, interfering with sleep. Physical relaxation techniques can help.

• Find a quiet, peaceful place in which to practice the following technique about 30 minutes a day:

1. Lie perfectly still until you find the most comfortable position for yourself. Now deliberately tense up the muscles in your arms and legs as tightly as you can. Try to hold this tension for about a minute and then let the muscles relax gradually-first your legs, and then your arms.
2. Now let your whole body feel as relaxed as it possibly can. Take a rest for five minutes and then repeat the procedure twice more.
3. At the end of the session, try to concentrate on the feeling of your muscles and let them go as limp and relaxed as possible for the rest of the period. Try to make your breathing slow and steady as you relax.

Mental Relaxation


Since stress and worry, including the worry about not being able to fall asleep, are often at the core of insomnia, many people have found that mental relaxation techniques can help them to feel less anxious and therefore sleep better.
This method also requires finding a peaceful, quiet place to practice this technique for about 30 minutes a day:

• Try to relax your body first, by finding the most comfortable position for yourself. Then empty your mind of all thoughts by concentrating on one particular object in the room or a particular part of the room.
• After a minute, sit up, and then walk around for a bit. Then return to your position and repeat the exercise.
• Now think of a particularly happy time in your life that you really enjoyed. If you cannot immediately think of something, find a poster of some exotic place or beautiful scenery. Concentrate on imagining yourself in this place for about five minutes.
• Try to feel the sensations first in your neck muscles, and then in your arm and leg muscles, as they gradually become relaxed. After another few minutes, get up and walk around the room a bit. Then repeat the process.

This exercise differs from the physical technique in that it emphasizes controlling the psychological components of anxiety before attempting to relax your body.


Other Techniques


Other relaxation techniques to try include:

1. Yoga or meditation
2. Exercise (shown in studies to be an effective way to achieve a healthy sleep)
3. Mind-body therapies such as guided imagery or hypnotherapy
4. Reading while lying in a relaxed position
5. Listening to music while lying in a relaxed position
6. Having a soothing bath or shower before bed
7. Massage, especially of the neck, shoulder, and leg muscles

~ Hemorrhoids ~

What are hemorrhoids?


 The term hemorrhoids refers to a condition in which the veins around the anus or lower rectum become
wollen and inflamed. Several groups of veins surround the rectum and anus -one group is known as internal hemorrhoidal veins, and the others are known as external hemorrhoidal veins.


There are two types of hemorrhoids: internal and external. As the name suggests, internal hemorrhoids affect the internal hemorrhoidal veins; external hemorrhoids affect the internal hemorrhoidal veins.

What Causes Hemorrhoids During Pregnancy?


During pregnancy, hemorrhoids are caused by an increase in pressure within either the internal or external hemorrhoidal veins. There are several reasons why pressure may increase during pregnancy. Some of these reasons include:

• The fetus and uterus are growing, which puts more pressure on veins in the lower pelvic area.
• Hormonal changes cause the hemorrhoidal vessels to enlarge.
• Severe pressure to the hemorrhoidal veins occurs during childbirth.
• Frequent constipation during pregnancy. Constipation increases straining and pressure during bowel movements.

Symptoms Of Hemorrhoids

• Many anorectal problems, including fissures, fistulae, abscesses, or irritation and itching, also called pruritus ani, have similar symptoms and are incorrectly referred to as hemorrhoids.
• Hemorrhoids usually are not dangerous or life threatening. In most cases, hemorrhoidal symptoms will go away within a few days.
• Although many people have hemorrhoids, not all experience symptoms. The most common symptom of internal hemorrhoids is bright red blood covering the stool, on toilet paper, or in the toilet bowl. However, an internal hemorrhoid may protrude through the anus outside the body, becoming irritated and painful. This is known as a protruding hemorrhoid.
• Symptoms of external hemorrhoids may include painful swelling or a hard lump around the anus that results when a blood clot forms. This condition is known as a thrombosed external hemorrhoid.
• In addition, excessive straining, rubbing, or cleaning around the anus may cause irritation with bleeding and/or itching, which may produce a vicious cycle of symptoms. Draining mucus may also cause itching.

How are hemorrhoids diagnosed?


A thorough evaluation and proper diagnosis by the doctor is important any time bleeding from the rectum or blood in the stool occurs. Bleeding may also be a symptom of other digestive diseases, including colorectal cancer.
The doctor will examine the anus and rectum to look for swollen blood vessels that indicate hemorrhoids and will also perform a digital rectal exam with a gloved, lubricated finger to feel for abnormalities.

Closer evaluation of the rectum for hemorrhoids requires an exam with an anoscope, a hollow, lighted tube useful for viewing internal hemorrhoids, or a proctoscope, useful for more completely examining the entire rectum.

THE FIGURE SHOWED TYPES OF HEMMORHOIDS

To rule out other causes of gastrointestinal bleeding, the doctor may examine the rectum and lower colon, or sigmoid, with sigmoidoscopy or the entire colon with colonoscopy. Sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy are diagnostic procedures that also involve the use of lighted, flexible tubes inserted through the rectum.

The Internal Type of Hemorrhoids

Internal hemorrhoids occur when there is too much pressure on the internal hemorrhoidal veins. Frequently, the only sign that internal hemorrhoids exist is bright-red blood that appears on the surface of the stool, in the toilet bowl, or on the toilet paper. But, if the pressure and swelling continue, the hemorrhoidal veins may stretch out of shape, sometimes so much that they bulge through the anus to the outside of the body. 
Pain is not usually common with internal hemorrhoids, unless a blood clot forms or an infection occurs.
 
 

 
The External Type of Hemorrhoids


The external hemorrhoidal veins around the anus can also become swollen, causing external hemorrhoids. These swollen veins bleed easily, either from straining or rubbing, and irritation from draining mucus may cause itching in the anal area. If blood clots form in these hemorrhoids, the pain can be severe.
 
 

 


Medical Treatment


Medical treatment of hemorrhoids is aimed initially at relieving symptoms. Measures to reduce symptoms include :

• tub baths several times a day in plain, warm water for about 10 minutes
• application of a hemorrhoidal cream or suppository to the affected area for a limited time
• Preventing the recurrence of hemorrhoids will require relieving the pressure and straining of constipation.
• Doctors will often recommend increasing fiber and fluids in the diet.
• Eating the right amount of fiber and drinking six to eight glasses of fluid—not alcohol—result in softer, bulkier stools.
• A softer stool makes emptying the bowels easier and lessens the pressure on hemorrhoids caused by straining. Eliminating straining also helps prevent the hemorrhoids from protruding.
• In addition, doctors may suggest a bulk stool softener or a fiber supplement such as psyllium (Metamucil) or methylcellulose (Citrucel).

Surgical Treatment

In some cases, hemorrhoids must be treated endoscopically or surgically. These methods are used to shrink and destroy the hemorrhoidal tissue. The doctor will perform the procedure during an office or hospital visit.

A number of methods may be used to remove or reduce the size of internal hemorrhoids. These techniques include:

1. Rubber band ligation. A rubber band is placed around the base of the hemorrhoid inside the rectum. The band cuts off circulation, and the hemorrhoid withers away within a few days.
2. Sclerotherapy. A chemical solution is injected around the blood vessel to shrink the hemorrhoid.
3. Infrared coagulation. A special device is used to burn hemorrhoidal tissue.
4. Hemorrhoidectomy. Occasionally, extensive or severe internal or external hemorrhoids may require removal by surgery known as hemorrhoidectomy.

Do You know astrocytomas??

DEFINITION...

Astrocytomas are the most common glioma, and can occur in most parts of the brain (and occasionally in the spinal cord). Astrocytomas originate from cells called astrocytes and are most commonly found in the main part of the brain, the cerebrum. People can develop astrocytomas at any age, though they are more common in adults. Astrocytomas in the base of the brain are more common in young people.

GRADE...

 Grade 1

World Health Organization (WHO) grade 1 astrocytomas (pilocytic astrocytomas, pleomorphic xanthoastrocytomas, subependymal giant cell astrocytomas, and subependymomas) are uncommon tumors which can often be cured by surgically removing the tumor (resection). Even if the surgeon is not able to remove the entire tumor, it may remain inactive or be successfully treated with radiation.



Grade II

Grade II tumors are defined as being infiltrative gliomas — the tumor cells penetrate into the surrounding normal brain, making a surgical cure more difficult.



Most patients with grade II glioma (oligodendrogliomas, astrocytomas, mixed oligoastrocytomas) are young people who often present with seizures. The median survival varies with the cell type of the tumor. People with oligodendrogliomas have better a prognosis than those with mixed oligoastrocytomas who have better a prognosis than someone with an astrocytoma. Other factors which influence survival include age (younger the better) and performance status (ability to perform tasks of daily living). Due to the infiltrative nature of these tumors, recurrences are relatively common. Depending on the patient, radiation or chemotherapy after surgery is an option.



Most grade II gliomas eventually evolve into more aggressive tumors (grade III or IV) and cannot be cured by surgery and radiation therapy. A practical approach is to remove as much of the abnormal tissue as possible without causing neurologic injury. Research has shown that beginning radiation therapy immediately after diagnosis delays recurrence compared to beginning radiation when there is evidence of tumor growth.



Anaplastic astrocytoma (grade III)

Patients with anaplastic astrocytoma often present with seizures, neurologic deficits, headaches, or changes in mental status. The standard initial treatment is to remove as much of the tumor as possible without worsening neurologic deficits. Radiation therapy has been shown to prolong survival and is a standard component of treatment. In general, median survival ranges from two to three years. There is no proven benefit to adjuvant chemotherapy (supplementing other treatments) for this kind of tumor. Although temozolomide is effective for treating recurrent anaplastic astrocytoma, its role as an adjuvant to radiation therapy has not tested.



Glioblastoma multiforme (Grade IV)

Glioblastoma multiforme is the most common and most malignant primary brain tumor.

Treatment...

Treatment of gliomas is a team process at Mayo Clinic. Specialists from the brain tumor treatment team work together to provide the high-quality, integrated model of care for which Mayo Clinic is known. A neurologist who has expertise and additional training in neuro-oncology usually serves as the primary physician, who helps to coordinate overall care with a team consisting of neurosurgery, medical oncology, radiation oncology, neuropathology and neuroradiology specialists.

New glioma treatments are developed continually, so several options may be available for patients. The pros and cons of each option are discussed in detail during treatment planning. Mayo Clinic's goal is to improve both the duration and quality of survival. Every effort is made to tailor the treatment program to the needs of each patient and family.

Surgery


Surgery is the initial therapy for nearly all patients with gliomas. It can cure most benign gliomas, as well as meningiomas. The goal of surgery is to remove as much of the glioma as possible while minimizing damage to healthy tissue.
Some gliomas can be removed completely; others can be removed only partially or not at all. Partial removal helps relieve symptoms by reducing pressure on the brain and reducing the size of the glioma to be treated by radiation or chemotherapy.
After the glioma has been removed, Mayo Clinic pathologists immediately evaluate the tissue and report results directly to the surgeon in the operating room. Direct, face-to-face contact with the pathologist during the surgery allows the surgeon to verify that the glioma has been fully removed and may reduce the need for an additional operation.

Radiation Therapy


Radiation Therapy is an essential component of treatment for many patients with gliomas. It can be curative some patients and prolongs survival for most.
The traditional form of radiation therapy, referred to as fractionated radiation, delivers radiation in small doses (fractions). Typically, patients are treated once daily, five times per week, for a total of five to six weeks. Even after the tumor visible on the CT or MRI scan is removed, radiation is often used to treat the margin of brain around the surgical cavity, going after the microscopic tumor cells that have infiltrated the area from the original mass.

External Beam Radiation


This traditional form of radiation therapy delivers radiation from outside the body. The radiation usually involves treatments five days a week. The length of treatment time depends on the type of glioma. External beam radiation is less precise than Fractionalized Stereotactic Radiotherapy, but allows a wider area of tissue around the glioma to be treated.

Chemotherapy


Chemotherapy is an important part of the care of glioma patients. For patients with glioblastoma (Grade 4 astroccytoma), the most rapidly growing and aggressive glioma, the addition of chemotherapy to the radiation has been shown to significantly extend a patient's lifespan. Current research is focused on the development and evaluation of new drugs to use with radiation for a newly diagnosed tumor, as well as for recurrent gliomas.
Mayo Clinic is a research leader in treating brain tumors with chemotherapy, and patients may be offered an opportunity to participate in trials that are appropriate for their situation.

Vaccine and Viral Therapies


Modulation of the patient's immune system to attempt to control the glioma by immunization or induction of immune cells and the use of modified viruses to attack the tumor are other treatment approaches studied at Mayo Clinic. Clinical trials with vaccines and virus therapy are underway.

~ Cornea Ulcer ~

Corneal Ulcer Causes

• Most corneal ulcers are caused by infections.
• Bacterial infections cause corneal ulcers and are common in people who wear contact lenses.
• Viral infections are also possible causes of corneal ulcers. Such viruses include the herpes simplex virus (the virus that causes cold sores) or the varicella virus (the virus that causes chickenpox and shingles).
• Fungal infections can cause corneal ulcers and may develop with improper care of contact lenses or the overuse of eyedrops that contain steroids.
• Tiny tears to the corneal surface may become infected and lead to corneal ulcers. These tears can come from direct trauma by scratches or metallic or glass particles striking the cornea. Such injuries damage the corneal surface and make it easier for bacteria to invade and cause a corneal ulcer.
• Disorders that cause dry eyes can leave your eye without the germ-fighting protection of tears and cause ulcers.
• Any condition which causes loss of sensation of the corneal surface may increase the risk of corneal ulceration.
• Chemical burns or other caustic (damaging) solution splashes can injure the cornea and lead to corneal ulceration.
• People who wear contact lenses are at an increased risk of corneal ulcers. The risk of corneal ulcerations increases tenfold when using extended-wear soft contact lenses. Extended-wear contact lenses refer to those contact lenses that are worn for several days without removing them at night.

 Contact lenses may damage your cornea in many ways:

1. Scratches on the edge of your contact lens can scrape the cornea's surface and make it more vulnerable to bacterial infections.
2. Similarly, tiny particles of dirt trapped underneath the contact lens can scratch the cornea.
3. Bacteria may be on the improperly cleaned lens and get trapped on the undersurface of the lens. If your lenses are left in your eyes for long periods of time, these bacteria can multiply and cause damage to the cornea.
4. Wearing lenses for extended periods of time can also block oxygen to the cornea, making it more susceptible to infections.

Corneal Ulcer Symptoms

1. Red eye
2. Pain in the eye
3. Feeling that something is in your eye
4. Tearing
5. Pus or thick discharge draining from your eye
6. Blurry vision
7. Pain when looking at bright lights
8. Swollen eyelids
9. A white or gray round spot on the cornea that is visible with the naked eye if the ulcer is large

Corneal Ulcer Treatment

Medical Treatment :

• Your ophthalmologist will remove your contact lenses if you are wearing them.
• Your ophthalmologist will generally not place a patch over your eye if he or she suspects that you have a bacterial infection. Patching creates a warm dark environment that allows bacterial growth.
• Hospitalization may be required if the ulcer is severe.

Surgery Treatment :

• If the ulcer cannot be controlled with medications or if it threatens to perforate the cornea, you may require an emergency surgical procedure known as corneal transplant

Self-Care at Home :

• If you wear contact lenses, remove them immediately.
• Apply cool compresses to the affected eye.
• Do not touch or rub your eye with your fingers.
• Limit spread of infection by washing your hands often and drying them with a clean towel.
• Take over-the-counter pain medications, such as acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Motrin).

THE FIGURE SHOWED EXAMPLE OF CORNEA ULCER

~ Ectopic Pregnancy ~

DEFINITION

Ectopic means "out of place." In an ectopic pregnancy, a fertilized egg has implanted outside the uterus. The egg settles in the fallopian tubes in more than 95% of ectopic pregnancies. This is why ectopic pregnancies are commonly called "tubal pregnancies." The egg can also implant in the ovary, abdomen, or the cervix, so you may see these referred to as cervical or abdominal pregnancies.
None of these areas has as much space or nurturing tissue as a uterus for a pregnancy to develop. As the fetus grows, it will eventually burst the organ that contains it. This can cause severe bleeding and endanger the mother's life. A classical ectopic pregnancy does not develop into a live birth.

Signs and Symptoms

Ectopic pregnancy can be difficult to diagnose because symptoms often mirror those of a normal early pregnancy. These can include missed periods, breast tenderness, nausea, vomiting, or frequent urination.
The first warning signs of an ectopic pregnancy are often pain or vaginal bleeding. You might feel pain in your pelvis, abdomen, or, in extreme cases, even your shoulder or neck (if blood from a ruptured ectopic pregnancy builds up and irritates certain nerves). Most women describe the pain as sharp and stabbing. It may concentrate on one side of the pelvis and come and go or vary in intensity.
Any of the following additional symptoms can also suggest an ectopic pregnancy:

• vaginal spotting
• dizziness or fainting (caused by blood loss)
• low blood pressure (also caused by blood loss)
• lower back pain.

What Causes an Ectopic Pregnancy?

An ectopic pregnancy results from a fertilized egg's inability to work its way quickly enough down the fallopian tube into the uterus. An infection or inflammation of the tube might have partially or entirely blocked it. Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), which can be caused by gonorrhea or chlamydia, is a common cause of blockage of the fallopian tube.
Endometriosis (when cells from the lining of the uterus implant and grow elsewhere in the body) or scar tissue from previous abdominal or fallopian surgeries can also cause blockages. More rarely, birth defects or abnormal growths can alter the shape of the tube and disrupt the egg's progress.

Diagnosis

If you arrive in the emergency department complaining of abdominal pain, you'll likely be given a urine pregnancy test. Although these tests aren't sophisticated, they are fast — and speed can be crucial in treating ectopic pregnancy.

If you already know you're pregnant, or if the urine test comes back positive, you'll probably be given a quantitative hCG test. This blood test measures levels of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which is produced by the placenta and appears in the blood and urine as early as 8 to 10 days after conception. Its levels double every 2 days for the first several weeks of pregnancy, so if hCG levels are lower than expected for your stage of pregnancy, one possible explanation might be an ectopic pregnancy.

You'll probably also get an ultrasound examination, which can show whether the uterus contains a developing fetus or if masses are present elsewhere in the abdominal area. But the ultrasound might not be able to detect every ectopic pregnancy. The doctor may also give you a pelvic exam to locate the areas causing pain, to check for an enlarged, pregnant uterus, or to find any masses.

Even with the best equipment, it's hard to see a pregnancy less than 5 weeks after the last menstrual period. If your doctor can't diagnose ectopic pregnancy but can't rule it out, he or she may ask you to return every 2 or 3 days to measure your hCG levels. If these levels don't rise as quickly as they should, the doctor will continue to monitor you carefully until an ultrasound can show where the pregnancy is.

Options for Treatment

1. Treatment of an ectopic pregnancy varies, depending on how medically stable the woman is and the size and location of the pregnancy.
2. An early ectopic pregnancy can sometimes be treated with an injection of methotrexate, which stops the growth of the embryo.
3. If the pregnancy is further along, you'll likely need surgery to remove the abnormal pregnancy. In the past, this was a major operation, requiring a large incision across the pelvic area. This might still be necessary in cases of emergency or extensive internal injury.
4. However, the pregnancy may sometimes be removed using laparoscopy, a less invasive surgical procedure.
5. The surgeon makes small incisions in the lower abdomen and then inserts a tiny video camera and instruments through these incisions. The image from the camera is shown on a screen in the operating room, allowing the surgeon to see what's going on inside of your body without making large incisions. The ectopic pregnancy is then surgically removed and any damaged organs are repaired or removed.
6. Whatever your treatment, the doctor will want to see you regularly afterward to make sure your hCG levels return to zero. This may take several weeks. An elevated hCG could mean that some ectopic tissue was missed. This tissue may have to be removed using methotrexate or additional surgery.

How to get rid of dandruff

If dandruff shampoos don’t seem to work for you, you can try a few of these homemade remedies to get rid of dandruff. I hope it works for you!

Try these items from your medicine cabinet to help get rid of dandruff:

1. Aspirin

Crush two aspirins until they become a fine powder and add it to your shampoo each time you wash your hair. Leave it on your hair for 1-2 minutes, then rinse well and wash again with plain shampoo.

2. Mouthwash

To treat a bad case of dandruff, wash your hair with your regular shampoo; then rinse with an alcohol-based mouthwash. You can follow with your regular conditioner.

You’ll be amazed that even items in your kitchen can help to get rid of dandruff too. Check these out:

1. Lemon

Massage 2 tablespoons of lemon juice into your scalp and rinse with water. Then stir 1 teaspoon of lemon juice into 1 cup of water, and rinse your hair with it. Repeat this daily until your dandruff disappears.

2. Baking soda

Wet your hair, then rub a handful of baking soda into your scalp. Rinse thoroughly and towel dry. Do this every time you normally wash your hair, but only use baking soda with no shampoo. Your hair may get dried out at first. But after a few weeks your scalp will start producing natural oils, leaving your hair softer and free of flakes.

3. Salt

The abrasiveness of ordinary table salt works great for scrubbing out dandruff before you shampoo. Grab a saltshaker and shake some salt onto your dry scalp. Then work it through your hair, giving your scalp a massage. You’ll find you’ve worked out the dry, flaky skin and are ready for a shampoo.

4. Vinegar

To give your dandruff the brush-off, follow up each shampoo with a rinse of 2 cups of apple cider vinegar mixed with 2 cups of cold water. You can also fight dandruff by applying 3 tablespoons of vinegar onto your hair and massaging into your scalp before you shampoo. Wait a few minutes, then rinse it out and wash as usual.